Modernization Theory Essay

Modernization theory is a theory that explains the process of improvement from an older culture to the newest one as well as explains the changing ways of communication and media use in traditional and postmodern societies. The theory takes into consideration factors from a certain place with the assumption that traditional places can be developed to the most recent manners. Modernization theory does not only stress there to be a change but also response to that change. It also looks at internal dynamic while referring to social and cultural structures and the adaptation of new technologies. So essentially, what is modernization and what does this theory consist of? To put it simply, modernization is the economic growth within societies. And the modernization theory believes that there are steps to success for every country. Modernization theory evolved in three different time periods. The first wave appeared between the 1950s and 1960s. Western cultures and styles of living were the main goals to reach along with culture, motivations and achievements. Three variants that this first wave brought with them were one; economic developments in which mass media promote the global diffusion of many technical and social innovations that are essential to modernization, two; literacy and cultural developments allow for mas media to teach literacy and other essential skills and techniques and three; national identity development permits mass media to support national identities in new nations and attention to democratic policies. The second wave of modernization theory is a part of the critical theory that was popular in the 1970s and 1980s. This did not support but instead it criticized the influence of Western modernization. Within this criticism exists another theory called media dependency theory where developing countries are assumed to be dependent on mass media in the core of the Western world. The third wave of modernization theory began to rise in the 1990s. It is here that the modernization begins to be more neutral, neither in favor nor against Western modernization. Instead, it tries to expose the contradictions in the modernization process and simply help explain the consequences of modern living in contemporary society. The theory of modernization has its roots in the ideas of some scholars they produced different theories about the origins, characters, and future path of modern industrial society. Modernization theory is only optimistic and  full of contradictions. It is important to understa nd the history of a situation so a more realist approach can be taken to solve it. Now that the history is understood, it is possible to work with it and correct its faults so that the world will not be stuck anymore. The contemporary debate over modernization theory has in many respects circled back to researchers agendas. Alongside endless empirical studies of the correlation between wealth and democracy, scholars have tried to untangle precisely how and why economic and political developments are related. During the Cold War era, there were three successful theories of global evolution at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The Marxist school that compared modernization improvements with promotion of imperialism and social class exploitation has transformed into a larger liberal program, appealing to conflict against the United States and its limited allies as an instrument for more just economic distribution and more checks in global political expansion. The target of globalization more clearly identifies the problem of an enforced overseas model reducing cultural diversity and self-government; raising the profile of nationalism over the old subject of class struggle. It is not hard to understand why the hegemonic globalization school may be less outspoken, considering the fact that the meaning of its warnings of threats that can only be addressed in a world prepared under clear leadership and newly accommodated to containing political development that allows security dangers to progress and grow. Its neoconservative message calls for imposing a single model, more than comparing alternative approaches of nations and regions while accepting the benefits of diversity. Qualified studies done by multilateral globalization school show that modernization theory accepts that the merge is a long-term progression that must remain incomplete as civilizations find consolation in what distinguishes them. The fast pace of technological changes help accelerate integration, and there will be risk of increased interdependence and exposure that will only require more security collaboration. Yet the driving forces of the global system will remain states competing to gain an advantage in boosting their economies and national power. In the context of growing world integration, states will still be in competition to capitalize on modernization and shape the global system. Modernization theory predicts that strong economic growth raises homicide rate as it disrupts traditional modes of social organization and control. The same applies to higher levels of income, at least up to a certain point. It is only after a country has successfully developed and has reached a new more of socio-economic organization and non-traditional social reforms of control that crime rates can be expected to decline again – if not with the respect to property crime, then at least as concerns violent crime. This is compatible with modernization theory based on Durkheim n that moral individualism need not lead to higher rates of violence crimes as so-called organic solidarity will eventually substitute for traditional social control and constraints on individual behavior. Modernization theory is good for the greater of all but because it is a general theory its actions can be biased. Even with its contemporary works, it continues being a work in progress to make it better than what it is. Living in the twenty-first century only means more and faster technology, programs, data and many other things that are out there that certain places, countries and nations have possibly yet to discover or be aware of. Possibly, by giving that extra hand and helping one another as a civilization, this good for the greater of all can simply be greatness for all.

Separate components

One of the main religious books of Buddhism is â€Å"Tripitaka† (Pali language and Sanskrit – ‘tri’ = three and ‘pitaka’ = basket), which means â€Å"three baskets (of texts)† and also is know as â€Å"Tipitaka†, canonic texts of classical Buddhism schools, consisting of the Vinaya, the Sutta or Suttanata and the Abhidhamma.This three-part structure of canonic texts can be considered as line of demarcation between classical Buddhism (which some people call hinayana – narrow way or narrow chariot) and those reformative directions, which having desire to show its supremacy, gained an honorable title of mayanaya (wide way or wide chariot) and created another collections of holy texts, imitating to some extent works of â€Å"Tripitaka† (first of all these are dialogues of Sutta Pitaka), but didn’t follow principles of three-part canon.Separate components of â€Å"Tripitaka† were kept in memories of many sch ools of early Buddhism indifferent Indian languages, such as Sanskrit and hybrid Sanskrit and also in middle Indian languages.Some schools considered as holy all parts of Tripitaka, – except of theravaddine, vatsipuri or machishchasaka. The others focused accent at importance of separate parts in comparison with others: sthaviravadines respected the Sutta first of all; sarvastivadines respected the Abhidhamma and aparashayles and purvashayles recognized only the Vinaya. Some of the followers completed three-part canon with new ‘baskets’.So, machasanghiki added to three parts Samiukta-pitaka and Dharma-pitaka, and bachusrutii (who already recognized â€Å"transcendency† of some Buddhist studies) added also Bodhisattva-pitaka, whereas dharmaguptaki took from traditional three parts only the Vinaya and added together with three new ‘pitakas’ also Tsharani-pitaka (which was probably text of magical spells) (Thomas W. Rhys-Davids, p.103).Complete c anonic text of â€Å"Tripitaka† belongs to ‘orthodox’ school of theravadines. Canonic texts were collected, were reproduced and passed orally, modified by the teachers, preachers and missioners of Buddhist communities during many ages, so material of Pali â€Å"Tripitaka† belongs to wide time continuum from the Buddha à ©poque (according to modern date – 5 century BC), some speeches of whom, probably, were memorized immediately by followers of his communities, specialized on memorizing of holy texts (bhanaki) till time of their partial writing in Pali language in the 1 century BC.Process of canonization wasn’t finished yet. Texts of â€Å"Tripitaka† continued to be created, edited, wrote and re-wrote till the 5th century – time of creation of â€Å"complete† commentary to â€Å"Tripitaka†, which can be considered the Pali re-working of Singal commentaries by egzeget collegiums, managed by Buddaghossa. So, historic al origin of â€Å"Tripitaka† texts needs special examining in each separate case.Written form of â€Å"Tripitaka† was first written on palm leaves – alu – during the times of King Vatthugamini Abhay (101-77 BC) in Alu-Vihara, Matala near Kandi, Sri-Lanka.These works were collected one year after Buddha’s death by his three followers at the first Buddhist’s meeting in Radzhigire. During the next meetings those groups of studies were re-worked and written.First ‘basket’ consists of 3 parts and is dedicated to principles of organization of Buddhist monk community, principles of creation and demands to monks.The Vinaya regulates all monk life and their communications with civil people in details. The word â€Å"Vinaya† means â€Å"that, who dispels evil†. The first part, Suttavibhanga, is commentary to patimokkha – 227 discipline rules for monks in connection with definite actions of members of early-Buddhist m onk community-sangha and corresponding punishments – starting of admonitions and finished by expulsion from sangha. These rules reflect real practice of regular readings of patimokkha during fasting-days (uposatha) of new moon and full moon.The second part consists of Khandhakas – in two versions (Mahavagga in 10 chapters and Culavagga in 12 chapters), where detailed discipline rules (prescribing how to live during rain periods, which clothes they should wear, how they should prepare medicines, etc), are ‘diluted’ with didactic and historical legends (Frauwallner, E.,, p.53).The first contains stories which explain how separate people came to Buddhist community, the second contains information about partial stories of Buddha’s life (gaining â€Å"clarifying†, first travels and first followers) and stories about first two Buddhist meetings in Radzhagrych (soon after Buddha’s death) and in Vayshali. The third part, Parivaranapatha, consi sts of 19 text of catechism type, including questions and answers for discipline problems.The Sutta, the eldest and the main part of Tripitaka’s texts is collection of five big texts (nikaya), first four of which are thematically similar to some extent (statement by Buddha, sometimes by his followers, of separate topics in Dharma (Buddhist science), and the last part is collection of different materials, united a bit later.The first four collections of the Sutta are started with unchangeable words â€Å"So I heard†, which is given from the narrator (in order to show origin of text), which is followed by plotline of lesson and then after the lesson itself, which Buddha pronounces in dialogue with somebody or in monologue (http://www.dharmanet.org/).The words are â€Å"Tripitaka† words are charming, they open your eyes and bewilder with their wisdom; they sound like music which you want to hear again and over again, reading and re-reading its simple but wise words : â€Å"He walks without fear, stands without fear, sits without fear, lies down without fear. Why is that? Because he is out of the Evil One ‘ s range. †Thai is what the Blessed One said. The bhikkhus were satisfied and delighted in the Blessed One ‘ s words†. (â€Å"Tripitaka†) These four collections of texts differ not only in content, but in quantity and structure – by length of the Suttas and way of organization of their consequences. All five big collections of the Sutta’s texts include in different proportions prosaic and poem components.

Baxter Manufacturing Essay

Baxter Manufacturing Company (BMC) is a metal stampings company. Its major customers include, Ford, General Motors, Honda of America, General Electric and Whirlpool. The company is made up of two divisions it makes brackets and other components that go into the finished product, they also make motor casings. BMC employees about 420 non-union employees and has been steadily growing for the last 6 years. They have been approached to build a factory in Mexico, and settled on building in Queretaro, which is about a 3-hour drive north of Mexico City. Don Collins, who is the MIS manager, felt that since a new plant was being built with top of the line equipment and computer systems that they might be able to implement a system upgrade for the entire company. One of the problems was that BMC wanted the new system implemented by the end of the year. Given the quick deadline they decided to focus on support for the Mexico plant, a felt that the following approaches: 1. Connect the Mexican plant to BMC’s existing systems through a high-speed communications line   2.  Contract through an application service provider (ASP) to provide systems support to the Mexican plant. 3. Employ a piecemeal solution where they would acquire a number of software packages that could run on the networked PC’s in Mexico that would serve the basic needs of the Mexican plant. (MIS) The task force team ran into difficulties with language and cultural differences, the mindset of the employees and Mexico and the long distances between them. They met with resistance and self pride from the Mexican employees and were unable to communicate effectively with them. Target As a result of the lack of communication and the language differences the task force decided to go with option 3. They were working on locating vendors to provide support and with basic language software to help the employees stateside. The main issues that they are having are support for the systems and training for the equipment. By outsourcing some or all of ts IT work to a company that is familiar with the language and culture it could help expedite the time of getting the plant operational. In addition developing a training program that could be taught companywide could help benefit the entire company. Proposal One of the main issues that BMC is looking for is international support. They are been unable to work directly with its own employees due to the language barrier that it faces. By using a company like Unisys, they could provide the infrastructure support, business service support and many other features. They offer support in English and Spanish and could help ease the burden of the local IT department. Unisys could also implement a Cloud, in which the entire company could use to help transfer information to and from different locations. â€Å"Business forces have caused IT to try to figure out how to provide flexible services faster, but, without large, up front investments. Unisys has a number of cloud solutions for providing the necessary flexibility and responsiveness needed to achieve significant business value. † (Unisys) A great deal of time has gone into the development of this plant, but an equal or greater part must be present in training of the employees. In order for the plant to be fully operational at the level that is required by MBC, a training program must be designed. They would benefit greatly by having management train with how BMC currently runs its operation. By also setting up a video conferencing line they could help problem solve over the computer and or phone lines helping eliminate the distance between the two plants.

It is unfair to deny students financial aid Research Paper

It is unfair to deny students financial aid - Research Paper Example The cost of a higher education is an issue of great concern for most students and even their families as well (Goldberg 81-84).   Regardless of the financial situations of ones family, paying for a higher education requires a considerable commitment of ones resources for several years and the problem is made even worse if more than two children have been admitted into a college or a university.  It may be surprising for some people to learn that a good number of full-time undergraduate students are incapable of paying the cost of their education without assisted financially.  The problem here is even more intricate if the st This paper discusses the aspect of unfairness in the context of student financial aid. Specifically, the paper argues that is unfair to deny students financial aid. To clearly bring out the subject, the paper will detail circumstances leading to award or failure to grant student financial aid. If inflation is held as a constant to assess the real cost of tu ition in relation to the real amount of federal aid, in public colleges and universities, it can easily be established that between 1990s and 2012, financial aid per student increased by about 200 percent (Ehrenberg 3-4). In the same period, tuition rose by more than 260 percent. However, in private colleges and universities, the cost of tuition over the same period only increased by less than 170 percent. In fact, this seems like a rush by colleges to proof William Bennett’s theory right. ... If really this is the case, then everybody who applies should be given some financial assistance to also cushion the ever increasing cost of tuition. Public colleges and universities have constantly maintained that traditionally, in economic difficulties, higher learning institutions record an increased enrollment. Supporting their arguments, the enrollments of the 1980s, 1990s and the mid 2000s are used. According to their argument, at such a time, the rate of unemployment results in diminished tax revenues. This, therefore, means that there is a reduction in subsidies for public schools, and to mitigate the situation, tuition must be increased so that the same quality of education can be maintained. In reality, these are just excuses. This is because; such costs never come down even when there is not economic downturn. Even though they are factors that contribute to ever increasing cost of tuition, available federal subsidies like student financial aid cannot be overlooked. This is because even private schools are affected by such economic conditions yet they have maintained their tuition increases at a much lower percentage than public schools. Therefore, it is easier to argue that the federal subsidies impact or contribute the extra percentage. This is because the only differentiating factor between private and public colleges is the federal subsidies in the form of student financial aid. It is without a doubt that it is next to impracticality to make any system fair at least for every person, unfortunately, in the case of awarding financial aid, things are not fair at all. In most cases, when students are denied financial aid for the first time, some are allowed to file an appeal

Intellectual Property Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Intellectual Property - Essay Example Background of the research Arguments for intellectual property have taken many forms because the high rate of technological advancement makes people introduce new ways of misconduct. Individual personality is the extension of intellectual property because it introduces social progress and innovation incentives. Even justification of rights is related to merit and labor, the government should take a step forward to prevent people’s intellectual property. On the other hand, some organizations want the government to abolish the issue of intellectual property because it makes some big companies take advantage of emerging industries. Most people argue that the intellectual works on the basis of restricted access, but intellectual works are consumed by their use and many people are capable of using them concurrently. Intellectual property aims at protecting other people’s properties through introducing rules and regulations related to internet and technology. Organizations st ore crucial information that enable them carry out their business plans without crashing into one another’s plans. Violation of intellectual property rules leads to some industries having similar trademarks, or patents. In addition, economists have introduced economies of intellectual property that provides the basic requirements for an industry enter into the world of economies today (Lemley 1031). Types of intellectual property Intellectual property covers entrepreneurs in all categories from the small scale to large scale to assist in the protection of valuable assets of a company like the company logo, advertising instruments, list of consumers, and the unique ways of carrying out its activities (Bagley and Dauchy 23-52). The government has puts up policies to help in the protection of the intellectual property which every entrepreneur must follow. Copyrights Copyright forms the most crucial type of intellectual property that has greatly affected many industries, includin g software producing companies, music industries, multimedia, and entertainment sectors. Copyrights help in protecting the original expression of someone or an organization fixed in a tangible form. One of the commonest methods of copyright protection is through displaying a copyright notice on the product to make the user know the good protection by the copyright law, gives the producer, and the first time of publication. Copyright also gives the owner the right to get economic advantages from the product and the right to prevent duplication and selling of the work. Every person has the right over the ideas created and holds the responsibility to get all the benefits, which come because of that achievement and have the mandate to dictate who uses the idea for business purposes. The copyright covers all areas including computer programs and electronic databases. Trademarks Trademarks assist business industries in improving their image towards attracting more customers by increasing the quality of products and services offered. Trademark makes products and services more reliable, brings about innovations, and improves business performance. Good examples of well known trademarks globally include NIKE, AON, Mercedes-Benz, and Intel Inside. Protecting intellectual prop

Financial Management Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Financial Management Case - Essay Example These assets and liabilities are to be cashed or spent in the ordinary course of business; that is, we do not have to liquidate our company just to raise the cash we need, and neither do we have to pay all our long-term debts now. Working capital basically is a measure of how we manage our collections and our costs. Good working capital management, by lowering costs and maximising collections, contributes to maximising shareholder value, which is one of the Board's primary duties. An analysis of our current practices in this aspect of financial management has revealed the following problems: Trade receivables have increased from the desired thirty days to the actual fifty days. Bad debts have reached 1.5 percent of total sales. We are spending 76,000 annually, equivalent to 3.2 percent of sales, for trade debt or receivables financing, bad debts, and overhead. We have studied two options to manage our working capital that can bring down our costs and bring up our collections. Summary Course of Action We have looked at two options: Factoring (Option A) and Discounting (Option B). We summarise our findings as follows: Comparison of two options and current system Current system Trade debts from collections 40,000 Bad debts 36,000 Annual cost of debts: 76,000 Option A: Factoring Trade debts from collections 22,000 Service charges 48,000 Savings on bad debts (36,000) Savings from factoring (18,000) Annual cost of debts: 16,000 Annual savings from Option A: 60,000 Option B: Discounting Trade debt savings 6,400 Savings from collected bad debts 12,000 Cost of discounts (9,600) Annual savings from Option B: 8,800 Total savings from Options A and B: 56,800 We have calculated that factoring will save us 60,000...This is called working capital management. Working capital is the cash that is readily available to the organisation. This can be derived from the corporation's balance sheet by subtracting our current liabilities (short-term organisational commitments that needs cash payments) from our current assets (company resources that can be converted into cash in the short-term). These assets and liabilities are to be cashed or spent in the ordinary course of business; that is, we do not have to liquidate our company just to raise the cash we need, and neither do we have to pay all our long-term debts now. Working capital basically is a measure of how we manage our collections and our costs. Good working capital management, by lowering costs and maximising collections, contributes to maximising shareholder value, which is one of the Board's primary duties. We have calculated that factoring will save us 60,000 annually. Discounts will save us an additional 8,800 by bringing down our bad debts and trade debts costs, even if these discounts will cost us initially 9,600. If we use both options, we can save 56,800 each year, equivalent to 2.4 percent of sales. Note that combining the two options will give us a lower figure for total savings because if we use the Discounting option together with Factoring, the elimination of bad debts from availing of the latter (Factoring) option will give us only the benefit of trade debt savi

Capital Punishment in The UK Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Capital Punishment in The UK - Research Paper Example Capital punishment in the UK has a history dating back to several centuries. Initially, the punishment was meant for breaching royal ethics or disturbing the piece of administrative wings in the country. As stated in Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment Vol, 1 (2000, p.158) states, though England was the major influence on colonial America and the United States for their legal tradition, none of them ever carried out capital punishment with the same ferocity in their country as it was in England. Early days were notoriously remarkable with people getting hung for the crimes they had done. The punishment was in particular carried out by hanging the person proposed to death on the branch of a tree. Methods adopted to execute people were rather barbarian those days; apart from hanging, people were executed in various other ways like boiling, burning at the stake, decapitation and sometimes, drawing and quartering while still alive. England was historically considered to be the country t o facilitate the number of crimes than any other one on the face of the earth. According to Johnson & Zimring (2009), the capital punishments Britain carried out reflected the punishment policy it had adopted in colonies. The history of England reveals the prolific but horrifying fact that over 220 crimes were considered punishable by death. However, by 1957 death penalty was restricted to four types of offenses such as a) killing a policeman, b) killing during an armed robbery, c) killing by causing an explosion, and d) killing more than one person (Keene 2002). Critics were of the opinion that until 1957 the law itself gave more opportunity to people to commit capital crimes or was  widening its judicial areas where common people would trespass with their ultimate destiny of being caught after ‘committing’ the ‘capital crime’ in most cases because murder, burglary, and robbery were the commonest capital offenses those days. To illustrate, the law had no mercy upon child offenders. Children were commonly executed for mere stealing.  

To what extent are outcomes determined by current public health policy Essay

To what extent are outcomes determined by current public health policy for children affected by parental substances abuse satisfactory in the UK - Essay Example Likewise, people who have been casualties of kid misuse or who have been brought up in neediness are more at danger (Sora, 1997). Despondency and low respect toward oneself additionally can prompt substance ill-use. At the point when individuals, kids and teenagers particularly, start to have companions who use medications or acknowledge medication use as the "standard", they are more inclined to create substance ill-use issues themselves (Magill, 2011). Children are affected badly when their parents are involved in substance abuse. Many of the researches have shown that the kids go into depression and even they become victims of substance abuse (Straussner & Fewell, 2006). Another issue which can be highlighted in this case is that, when their parents are involved in substance abuse, the children are unable to enjoy their childhood days and tend to lose on it as they have to take up to early responsibilities of supporting themselves or even their family for that matter (Barlow, 2010). There are various organizations in various countries such Children 1st in Scotland. There have been various approach improvements lately planned to endeavour to handle the issue of parental substance misuse, and the issues brought on by medications and liquor all the more by and large (Kar, 1999). Archives, for example, the Scottish Officials direction, Getting Our Necessities Right, and the Activity Anticipate Liquor Abuse (2002) have attempted to recommend system to working with individuals who abuse substances. More exertion is required to concentrate on keeping individuals from getting to be entangled in this society, and helping the individuals who are at danger of substance misuse refocus on supporting their families (Fisher & Roget, 2009). Making decisions about the best interests and future well-being of a child is complex. Every youngster and their

Critically evaluatThe key challenge facing HR Managers in the 21st Essay

Critically evaluatThe key challenge facing HR Managers in the 21st century is to facilitate management of culture within organiz - Essay Example Proceeding from this, it is necessary to find a fundamentally new approach to priorities. The most important factor within any organization is its employees, and consumers -outside it. There is a strong need to turn the consciousness of workers towards the consumer, but not towards their supervisors, towards profit, but not wastage; towards the initiative, but not the indiscriminate fulfillment. It is necessary to make a way to social norms, based on sound economic sense, and do not forget about morality. The modern concept of development of production lies in the fact that the maximum productivity, quality and competitiveness can be achieved only by means of personal involvement of every employee; such strategy can stimulate each employee to improve the production process at their workplace first, and at the enterprise as a whole in the future. Involving staff in the process of production improvement makes a creative atmosphere and becomes a powerful motivator for staff to work that allows each employee to reveal their experience and creative ability. The central element underpinning the management is the professional nature of modern organizational management in economy of market. The term â€Å"manager† implies professional governors hired (Bach, 2005). In fact, it is a kind of social stratum, which plays a prominent role in society. What is the professional human resource manager? Since corporate culture generates the responsibility and the ability of people - a competitive advantage, the personnel manager has the following strategic objectives, which must be addressed. Nowadays, first of all, HR manager should possess some special knowledge and skills in the field of production and management, ability to work with people in different spheres of activity. Managers’ activity (regardless of rank and scope) is focused on finding and managing resources, ensuring effective and sustainable development of the organization, taking into account the lon g-term perspectives. It is important to creating competitive advantages through increased level of responsibility of personnel, using the means associated with the management of corporate culture. High corporate culture is able to attract and retain staff, establish the company's reputation, attract high- skilled workers and consumers, as well (Jaffee, 2001). Desire to update and adapt corporate culture to the changing conditions of the environment requires the provision of mutual respect between consumers and employees, continuous improvement of working conditions of staff. Employees’ involvement in various activities, related to marketing, contributes to their self-esteem (especially professional), the development of personal initiative, improve personal effectiveness. HR-service, along with other business units, should perform a variety of functions - from providing basic operations to strategic planning to succeed. However, many specialists in human resources management c ommit common mistakes - they tend to focus their attention either on strategic components of management exclusively or on tactical, while it is important to balance the strategic and tactical actions (Jaffee, 2001). One of the main strategies of the HR manager is providing a competitive advantage over other companies, with the help of diligent capacity building, promoting the growth of the employees' competence in the professional sphere. Nowadays the activity of HR-managers can

The Enthalpies of Combustion Essay Example for Free

The Enthalpies of Combustion Essay Standard enthalpy change of combustion is the energy change that occurs when 1 mol of fuel is completely burnt in oxygen under standard conditions. However, it is impossible for substances to be burnt under standard conditions. The enthalpies of combustion are different depending on the number of carbons and hydrogens in each substance. For example, the enthalpy combustion for methane is -890 kJ mol-1, however the enthalpy change of combustion for ethane or propane will be greater because more bonds are involved and therefore more bonds are broken and made. All combustion reactions are exothermic because energy is given out to make bonds. Figure 1: Exothermic reaction Before you start doing calculations for enthalpy change of combustion you firstly need to balance the equation. For example: Methane CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) 2H2O (g) + CO2 (g) Also it is important to note when making a combustion reaction balanced equation that the state symbols for all the substances are gaseous even water. Moreover, it is only in a combustion reaction that you use halves in an oxygen molecule. An example for octane is: C8H12 (g) + 12.5O2 (g) 8CO2 (g) + 9H2O (g) Method for the enthalpy of combustion for various alcohols 1. Set up a tri pod and place tiles around it. 2. Fill up a metal calorimeter with 200 cm3 of water and place on the tri pod. Also, place a thermometer on the container. 3. Record the reading on the thermometer of the temperature of the water. 4. Weigh the spirit burner containing the alcohol you are going to use and again record the reading. 5. Place the spirit burner containing the alcohol under the tri pod and quickly as possible take the lid off and light a match on it. 6. Wait till you will see a 15 degree increase on the thermometer. 7. When you see a 15 degrees increase, place the lid back on the alcohol and stir the water well with the thermometer until you see there is no change in temperature. 8. Weigh the alcohol and record the reading. Also record the reading of the temperature after it has increased. 9. Repeat steps 1-8 for all different alcohols. Results obtained from experiment Methanol Ethanol propan-1-ol Butan-1-ol Pentan-1-ol Enthalpy change of combustion (kJmol-1) 379.80 1071.23 1332.62 1715.82 2110.04 Enthalpy change of combustion = (1/moles of alcohol burned) x enthalpy released during the ex. True results of alcohols that should be obtained Methanol Ethanol propan-1-ol Butan-1-ol Pentan-1-ol Enthalpy change of combustion (kJmol-1) -890.30 1559.70 2219.70 2876.50 3509.10 From the results I obtained I can make a conclusion that the results were not very close to the true, this is because the experiment could not done under standard conditions like the other and therefore because of that some heat was lost to the surrounding. While I was carrying the experiment I realised that a black substance began to form underneath the colorimeter (container where the water was put in and heated up) which was carbon, meaning there was incomplete combustion. This therefore effected the results I obtained because the combustion experiment was not complete. Evaluation Experimental errors In any experiment, errors are made which are unavoidable. We can work out the errors of the equipments that were used in the experiment to find out which has the most effect. It is then best to convert these errors in to percentages because it is easier to see which has the most effect on your results and which has the least percentage error. Percentage error = error / reading x 100. A balance has a precision error of 0.005. Next I will turn it to a percentage error. The balance was used to weigh the spirit burners of the 5 alcohols before using it in the experiment and after it was used to heat the water up. Methanol Ethanol propan-1-ol Butan-1-ol Pentan-1-ol Initial mass of spirit burner / g 198.56 188.80 180.66 212.75 189.62 Percentage error/ % 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.003 Methanol Ethanol propan-1-ol Butan-1-ol Pentan-1-ol Final mass of spirit burner / g 197.41 188.16 180.09 212.08 189.08 Percentage error / % 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.003 Looking at the results above for the percentage errors, I can conclude that the balance did not effect the results I obtained as it gave me a small percentage error that was less than 1%. This ensures me that the measurements of the spirit burners that I obtained using the weighing balance where very accurate. Procedural errors * A thermometer was placed on the colorimeter and when reached to 500c and recorded the highest temperature by siring until there was no increase in temperature. * Keep lid on spirit burner to endure the alcohol did not evaporate to obtain a accurate measurement of the mass of alcohol combusted. * Draft exclusion made using insulating tiles. This is so less heat and temperate near the spirit burner that is lighted is relatively kept constant and not effected by air coming from window or heat from radiator.

Refugee Children In Developing Societies

Refugee Children In Developing Societies The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated there were over 9.6 million refugees living worldwide in 2003. That same year the Global IDP estimated that nearly 25 million people were internally displaced in approximately 50 countries. Most of these individuals were children, forced to live for months, sometimes years, in camps.  [1]  According to Grace Michel over 2 million children have died as a direct result of armed conflict. At least 6 million children have been permanently disabled or seriously injured, and more than 1 million have been orphaned or separated from their families.  [2]  . Although numbers are difficult to verifade because of the illegality of much of the cross-border movement of children, as well as lack reliable registration system of refugee children. These figures only account for those who are caught and repatriated but the majority of children go undetected. In addition many countries are unwilling to accept the scale and natur e of the problem. Refugee children And yet despite importance of the refugee children situation only in 1993 UNHCR introduce Guidkine on protection and care refugee children In order to improve and enhance the protection and care of refugee children, UNHCR has adopted a Policy on Refugee Children, endorsed by the UNHCR Executive Committee in October 1993. The UNHCR Guidelines on Refugee Children, first published in 1988, have been updated in the light of the new Policy and are presented in this document. At their core lays the realization of the need which children Refugee children definitely face dangers to their safety and well being than the average child. The brutal interruption of they family life and disruption of community structures by the conflict or natural disaster can deeply affect the physical and psychological well being. Children must also cope with the trauma of loss -of their family members, schools, neighborhoods and communities. In addition, millions of children have been forced to witness or even take part in horrifying acts of violence Sexual abuse and violence is another experience of many refugee children. Children are dependent on adults help, international organization and host countries generosity. Refugee children need to be providing with the basic needs like the nutrition, water and sanitation, suitable shelter and health care including health education. Also for many refugee children the basic need is accessing education to provide better future job opportunities. Many children especially on a first instance need f ood and urgent shelter, sleeping outdoors exposed to higher risks of contracting malaria or infections, not to mention the feeling of safety. They need safeguard against economic exploitation as they often are forced to work in fields belonging to host communities in exchange for food or low pay. Refugee children need a governments protection against ethnic and religion discrimination from host countries population and protection against sexual violence, especially refugee ophrense. . Finally Children need to help with tracking separated family. A number of children called for the authorities to stop abusing, imprisoning and repatriating them to their home countries, while others said they should be entitled to free education in the host countries. Southern Africa Child migrants tell all 29 April 2008 Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), Southern Africa Child migrants tell all, 29 April 2008, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/48200579b.html [accessed 3 December 2009] Health SUMMARY OF INTERNATIONAL TREATIES TO PROTECT CHILDREN IN ARMED CONFLICT Internet: http://www.unicef.org United Nations Childrens Fund UNICEF House, OPSCEN Health is the basic need very important aspect of refuge children well-being. First instance is to secure for refugee children to basic needs like access to clean water, nutrition, sufficient shelter, and access to medical services including hospitals and psychological and professional therapy assistance. I terms of water and shelter important is to organize a safety zone where children can fell comfortable and have access to food and clean water any time of the day and night. The emergency hospitals should provide necessary help in terms illness and injury and technical assistance for expectant mothers and maternity cases, and nursing mothers. More difficult cases should be direct to local hospitals. Good step in prevention of diesis, HIV/Aids spreads among children is health education. As well develop preventive health care and abolish harmful traditional practices, especial toward young girls comment among Africans tribes. The disruption and insecurity in refugee situations can harm childrens physical, intellectual, psychological, cultural and social development. In addition, children suffer or witness the torture or murder of family members or other forms of abuse or violence. Unaccompanied children are particularly vulnerable. First and foremost, the emotional well-being of children is influenced by the protection and care they receive from their families and communities. Adults often suffer greatly in refugee situations; this can Influence their ability to provide for their children. Sometimes parental distress results in child abuse, abandonment, family strife and other forms of family disintegration. During refugee situations, children face greater risks to their psychological development. Hardships in refugee situations are chronic. Children may be living in constant fear or anxiety; parents may be too stressed or traumatized to give good care; children may suffer from malnutrition and illness. Children are affected not only by what happens to them, but by what they are deprived of, for example missing out on developmental essentials such as play and school. Children need more than services which are directed just to them. Preschool play groups, for example, serve an important purpose, but if a parent cannot meet the childs emotional needs because the parent is too physically weak or emotionally stressed, then the childs greater developmental need is for the parent to receive help. First objective must be to restore normalcy, that is, to help the family function as normally as possible ensure existing a daily routine which increase they security and feeing of prediction. When life becomes stable, when they can rely on good things happening on a predictable basis, such as eating, going to school, playing, the sense of normalcy gives psychological security. Important from point of psychosocial well-being of refugee children is long assistance with information regarding they situation, rights and responsibilities as well as future possibilities. Education is a basic service which should be provide to all children, including refugee children. Unfortunately this service is less reachable for them despite fact that many young people believe that education is essential to their survival, protection and full recovery from their experience of armed conflict and disasters. They see in education the answers to their need for self-respect, economic and job opportunity and the voice in society. Education also represents an essential condition to peace and security of community and family. Yet, despite of central role in their lives, refugee children find quite often difficultly to access education. While the primary school education is more accusable for children, younger people find more difficult to get into higher education The major barriers to enter education can lay in sort of obstacles like is high cost of attending school and transportation problems, language and custom barriers, especially for girls. For example in Uganda, al though Universal Primary Education was instituted for all children including refugee, costs for materials and uniforms remained out of reach for most young people in the war-torn north. Non-tuition costs for primary school in northern Uganda averaged $120 per year, and secondary school costs were about $350 per year in a country where the estimated annual per capita income was $140 in 2001 Competing responsibilities are next major obstacles to enroll education. Teen parents, heads of households and orphans have particular difficulties obtaining education because, in addition to caring for themselves, they had the added responsibilities of caring for younger siblings and sometimes their own children. On the top of this obstacles there is the lack of facilities accommodate children and teaching staff, lack of flexible hours to accommodate work and family responsibilities and/or vocational and skills training linked to jobs . Sierra Leone is a good illustration of this problem where young people viewed education as a way to establish the peace, and said that access to education opportunities would help them feel less excluded from society, especially for demobilized soldiers who need to gain skills and access trainings to help them in job market. Educational opportunities and jobs are denied to girls who drown them into commercial sex work market or early marriages. The barriers can lay also in the host country policies. In Albania during the refugee crisis of 1999, Albanian Kosovars were welcomed to take refuge in camps and urban areas in Albania, but the government did not allow all young people immediate access to public education. Some refugees entered public schools, and some did not. Some refugees set up their own schools without initial external support and still others were attracted to schools opened by religious groups during the crisis. Girls situation is even more dramatic, despite commitments to gender equality in education. Girls dont have equal access to education, compared with their male refugee. For instance, 60 percent of girls in Sierra Leone were not attending primary school, and at least 76 percent did not attend secondary school, compared to 71 percent of boys. In northern Uganda, boys were more likely to complete primary school and did better on Primary Leaving Examinations than girls, and fewer girls went on to secondary school. Most girls and boys in each region agreed that, in general, parents valued boys education more than that of girls. Girls also said inadequate clothing, security and sanitary supplies kept many out of school. According to UNHCR approximately 1 million refugee children are enrolled in UNHCR education support program. 40 percent of enrolled are girls and adelnece women, 8 percent are enrolled at pre=school, 82% are attending primer school and 9 percent benefit from secondary school. Only 1 percent is attending higher education system. Page 7 Document Summary note on UNHCR s strategy and Activities Concerning refugee children Geneva may 2002 http://docstore.ingenta.com/cgi-bin/ds_deliver/1/u/d/ISIS/53779900.1/oup/reflaw/2003/00000015/00000001/art00149/08C6A8EBB1C9214B1259885548168C930EA581BF55.pdf?link=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/error/deliveryformat=pd The major solution to education problem is ensuring that all refugee children have access to primary and basic education and where possible secondary and professional education will help reduce the risk of exploitation. Special programs should be tailored to the needs of girls who have dropped out of school to reduce the risk of violence abuse. Children not only refugee should be educated on their rights. Various forms of social and life skills training will help young people to make better life choices and help them protect themselves from exploitation. Equal participation of girls in school should be actively promoted. The community also should be involved in recruiting and managing teaching staff and educators whom they feel they can trust, as teachers can also be sexual abusers. Cancellation of school fees or low cost of education should be placed. Furthermore, the clubs and counseling after school offering support and relax. Ensure Access to Education SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR REFUGEE CHILDREN Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Disp Important is to mention of education for disable refugee children who quite often safer isolation from community due to their conditions. Children with disabilities often do not get any support and services they need like physical rehabilitation, specialized education and social integration are sometimes neglected. Some times families, health workers and teachers have not understood the importance of including disabled children in normal patterns of activity. In some refugee situations, rehabilitation services are not provided because nationals do not have access to such services but still teachers should be encouraged to include disabled children in their classes whenever possible. Clear guidelines should be given on the physical needs of children with various types of disabilities. A positive attitude towards children with disabilities must be encouraged. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR REFUGEE CHILDREN Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons Refugee children, particularly unaccompanied and separated from families children often can find them at risk of sexual abuse and violence. Their limited ability to protect themselves and limited protection or lack of protection from the law of the host countries and international institution make them varounable to sextioal explotaion. In many cases, trafficking may involve payment to child family or even child themselves Child abuse and exploitation within the family is much more complex challenge as sexual violence within the family is almost always seen as a private matter that should not involve outsiders; as a result, an abused child may be blamed for the incident and be further victimized. Also the abuse is cared by the person responsible for protecting and caring for the child. The teenage mothers especially described pitiful and harsh lives: I have to sleep with so many men to make 1500, so that I can feedmyself and my child. They pay me 300 each time, but if I am lucky and I get an NGO worker he can pay me 1500 at one time and sometimes I get 2000 (girl mother in Guinea) or I sleep with different men but mostly NGO workers because I have to eat and feed my child (girl mother in Liberia) Guinea Its difficult to escape the trap of those [NGO] people; they use the food as bait to get you to sex with them. (refugee child) page 17 Protecting children from the protectors: lessons from West Africa by Asmita Naik 15 october 2002 Force Migration review Displaced children and adolescents: challenges and opportunitiesPer Protecting Children in Emergencies Escalating Threats to Children Must Be Addressed VOL.1, NO.1 SPRING 2005 Safe the Children SC-glob-apr05.pdf Although numbers are difficult to estimate because of the illegality of much of the cross-border movement of children, as well as lack relaible registration refugee children. These figures only account for those who are caught and repatriated but the majority of children go undetected. In addision many countries are unvilling to accept the scale and nautre of the problem The children who told their stories in the book called for better protection in host countries, teaching children and communities about the dangers of travelling to and living in foreign countries, and for a halt to the abuse, imprisonment and forced repatriation often inflicted on them. Refugees from armed conflicts worldwide increased from 2.4 million in 1974 to more than 27.4 million in 1996, with another 30 million people displaced within their own countries. Children and women make up an estimated 80 percent of displaced populations.* Children are affected by war in many ways, but one of the SUMMARY OF INTERNATIONAL TREATIES TO PROTECT CHILDREN IN ARMED CONFLICT At any one time, more than 300,000 children worldwide are fighting as soldiers with government forces or armed opposition groups,13 accounting for 10 percent of the combatants in ongoing conflicts.14 Children under the age of 18-some as young as seven-are actively participating in hostilities in 27 countries worldwide.15 Since 1990, over 2 million children have died as a direct result of armed conflict. At least 6 million children have been permanently disabled or seriously injured, and more than 1 million have been orphaned or separated from their families. 1 Graca Machel, The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children, delivered September 2000, www.unifem.org/index.php?f_page_pid=97, accessed 11 March 2005. In 2003, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated there were over 9.6 million refugees living worldwide.24 That same year the Global IDP Project estimated that nearly 25 million people were internally displaced in approximately 50 countries.25 Most of these individuals were children, forced to live for months, sometimes years, in camps. When disaster strikes, families suffer multiple and severe disruptions: not only do they lose their homes and livelihoods, but they often lose their autonomy, livelihoods, and dignity in the camps that are supposed to provide humanitarian relief and protection. Protecting Children in Emergencies Escalating Threats to Children Must Be Addressed VOL.1, NO.1 SPRING 2005 Safe the Children SC-glob-apr05.pdf http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900sid/OCHA-6BCNE8/$file/SC-glob-apr05.pdf?openelement SUMMARY OF INTERNATIONAL TREATIES TO PROTECT CHILDREN IN ARMED CONFLICT Internet: http://www.unicef.org United Nations Childrens Fund UNICEF House, OPSCEN In the past decade, two million children have been killed in armed conflict. Three times as many have been seriously injured or permanently disabled. Armed conflict kills andmaims more children than soldiers. Civilian fatalities in wartime have climbed from 5 percent at the turn of the century to more than 90 percent in the wars of the 1990s. Refugees from armed conflicts worldwide increased from 2.4 million in 1974 to more than 27.4 million in 1996, with another 30 million people displaced within their own countries. Children and women make up an estimated 80 percent of displaced populations.* Children remain susceptible to the physical dangers, as well as to the lasting psychological and social effects of war, once a conflict has ended. Children are vulnerable to physical dangerfrom millions of existing landmines and unexploded ordnance. Children must also cope with the trauma of loss -of their family members, schools, neighborhoods and communities. In addition, millions of children have been forced to witness or even take part in horrifying acts of violence. One UNICEF survey in Rwanda found that nearly 80 percent of the children had lost immediate family members and more than one-third of these had actually witnessed their murder. Children have become targets, not incidental casualties, of armed conflict. War violates every right of a child -the right to life, the right to be with family and community, the right to health and education, the right to the development of the personality, and the right to be nurtured and protected. It is a basic need of children to be protected and cared for when conflicts threaten, and the implementation of international human rights and humanitarian law addresses these needs. A number of international treaties exist to provide for the legal protection and care of children. Too often these treaties are ignored, and the world community must do everything possible to see that these treaties are complied with in all areas of the world. * Education is a basic service which should be provide to all children, including refugee children. Unfortunately this service is less reachable for them despite fact that many young people believe that education is essential to their survival, protection and full recovery from their experience of armed conflict and disasters. They see in education the answers to their need for self-respect, economic and job opportunity and the voice in society. Education also represents an essential condition to peace and security of community and family. Yet, despite of central role in their lives, refugee children find quite often difficultly to access education. While the primary school education is more accusable for children, younger people find more difficult to get into higher education The major barriers to enter education can lay in sort of obstacles like is high cost of attending school and transportation problems, languge and custom barriers. especially for girls. For example in Uganda, alt hough Universal Primary Education was instituted for all children including refugee, costs for materials and uniforms remained out of reach for most young people in the war-torn north. Non-tuition costs for primary school in northern Uganda averaged $120 per year, and secondary school costs were about $350 per year in a country where the estimated annual per capita income was $140 in 2001 Competing responsibilities are next major obsticuls to enroll education. Teen parents, heads of households and orphans have particular difficulties obtaining education because, in addition to caring for themselves, they had the added responsibilities of caring for younger siblings and sometimes their own children. On the top of this obticols there is the lack of facilities accommodate children and teaching staff, lack of flexible hours to accommodate work and family responsibilities and/or vocational and skills training linked to jobs . Sierra Leone is a good illustration of this problem where young people viewed education as a way to establish the peace, and said that access to education opportunities would help them feel less excluded from society, especially for demobilized soldiers who needs to gain skills and access trenings to help them in job market. Educational opportunities and jobs are denied to girls which drow them into into commercial sex work market or early marriages. The barires can laiy also in the host country policies. In Albania during the refugee crisis of 1999, Albanian Kosovars were welcomed to take refuge in camps and urban areas in Albania, but the government did not allow all young people immediate access to public education. Some refugees entered public schools, and some did not. Some refugees set up their own schools without initial external support and still others were attracted to schools opened by religious groups during the crisis. Girls situation is even more dramatic, despite commitments to gender equality in education. Girls dont have equal access to education, compared with their male refugee. For instance, 60 percent of girls in Sierra Leone were not attending primary school, and at least 76 percent did not attend secondary school, compared to 71 percent of boys. In northern Uganda, boys were more likely to complete primary school and did better on Primary Leaving Examinations than girls, and fewer girls went on to secondary school. Most girls and boys in each region agreed that, in general, parents valued boys education more than that of girls. Girls also said inadequate clothing, security and sanitary supplies kept many out of school. According to UNHCR approcimetly 1 million refugee children are enrold in UNHCR education support program. 40 precent of enlode are girls and adelnece women, 8 pecent are enrold at pre=school, 82% are attending primeryschool and 9 precent benefict from secondary scholl. Only 1 precent is attending higher education system. Pade 7 Document Summary note on UNHCR s strategy and Activities Conserning refugee children Geneva may 2002 http://docstore.ingenta.com/cgi-bin/ds_deliver/1/u/d/ISIS/53779900.1/oup/reflaw/2003/00000015/00000001/art00149/08C6A8EBB1C9214B1259885548168C930EA581BF55.pdf?link=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/error/deliveryformat=pd The majjoir solution to education problem is ensuring that all refugee children have access to primary and basic education and where possible secondary and professional education will help reduce the risk of exploitation. Special programmes should be tailored to the needs of girls who have dropped out of school to reduce the risk of vailence abuce. Children not only refugee should be educated on their rights. Various forms of social and life skills training, will help young people to make better life choices and help them protect themselves from exploitation. Equal participation of girls in school should be actively promoted. The community also should be involved in recruiting and managing teaching staff and educators whom they feel they can trust, as teachers can also be sexual abusers. Councelation of school fees or low cost of education should be placed. Furthermore, the clubs and counseling after school offerring support and relax. Ensure Access to Education SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR REFUGEE CHILDREN Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons Important is to mention of education for disable refugee children who quite often saffer isolation from community due to their conditions. Children with disabilities often do not get any support and services they need like physical rehabilitation, specialized education and social integration are sometimes neglected. Some times families, health workers and teachers have not understood the importance of including disabled children in normal patterns of activity. In some refugee situations, rehabilitation services are not provided because nationals do not have access to such services But still teachers should be encouraged to include disabled children in their classes whenever possible. Clear guidelines should be given on the physical needs of children with various types of disabilities. A positive attitude towards children with disabilities must be encouraged. Futhermore access to secondary school was nearly impossible for most young people in Sierra Leone and northern Uganda, virtually guaranteeing that they would not have the skills necessary to contribute to the economic development of their communities over time. While young refugees from Kosovo attended secondary school more often over all, they still faced major barriers. Fearing overcrowding, the Albanian government delayed entry into secondary school, and mandated that a summer school program be set up for refugee adolescents seeking to enter secondary school in the fall-a policy decision that left many young people idle. Later, Albanians returned to normal secondary schools in Kosovo after years of participating in a parallel school system, but the schools were in bad condition. Many young people in rural areas, especially girls and minority Romas, could not complete or move beyond primary school. Under very difficult security constraints, many Serb young people separated from fam ily members in order to complete their secondary education. Internally displaced young people often face even higher barriers to education than do refugees. For example, some young Sudanese refugees in northern Uganda fared better than Ugandan internally displaced youth because the refugees had help from UNHCR. By contrast, no international agency was charged with the protection and care of all IDPs. Less than 30 percent of school-age children in IDP camps were enrolled on a full-time basis, compared with the 93 percent primary school enrollment rate in other parts of Uganda. Despite the same security constraints, 77 percent of refugee students in northern Uganda were enrolled in primary school in one settlement that also benefited local Ugandan children. At the same time, both IDPs and refugees had equally poor access to secondary school. Young people who were able to attend school said it was difficult to learn. Their classrooms were often overcrowded and broken down or even witho ut walls and a roof. In the Achol Pii refugee settlement in northern Uganda, each teacher served a class of 110 children in their primary school. In all areas, paper, pens and books were lacking. Many teachers had been killed or had taken other jobs for their own economic survival. Those who remained, according to young people, were often unsupportive and badly prepared. Young people disliked teachers talking at them and called their methods old-fashioned and boring. Young people asked for more participatory approaches to teaching and for more opportunities to learn practical and vocational skills. They also asked for more support to help teachers. One young person said, We bring our teachers lunch, so that they will come back to us eac YOUTH SPEAK OUT: New Voices on the Protection and Participation of Young People Affected by Armed Conflict Womens Commission for Refugee Women and Children January 2005 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR REFUGEE CHILDREN Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons Refugee children often can find themselves at risk of sexual abuse. Their limited ability to protect themselves and limited protection or lack of protection from the law of the host countries law and international institution make them varounable to sextioal explotaion. Refugee children, particularly unaccompanied and separated from families children often can find them at risk of sexual abuse and violence. Their limited ability to protect themselves and limited protection or lack of protection from the law of the host countries law and international institution make them varounable to sextioal explotaion. In many cases, trafficking may involve payment to child family or even child themselves Child abuse and exploitation within the family is mauch more complex challenge as sexual violence within the family is almost always seen as a private matter that should not involve outsiders; as a result, an abused child may be blamed for the incident and be further victimized. Alsow the abuse is cared by the person responsible for the protection . since the person who is responsible for protecting and caring for the child, in many cases a male relative, is doing neither. Sexual violence within the family is almost always seen as a private matter that should not involve outsiders; as a result, an abused child may be blamed for the incident and be further victimized The teenage mothers especially described pitiful and harsh lives: I have to sleep with so manymen to make 1500, so that I can feedmyself and my child. They pay me 300 each time, but if I am lucky and Iget an NGO worker he can pay me 1500 at one time and sometimes I get2000 (girl mother in Guinea) or I sleep with different men but mostly NGO workers because I have to eat and feed my child (girl mother in Liberia) Guinea Its difficult to escape the trap of those [

Dynasties Of The Byzantine Empire History Essay

Dynasties Of The Byzantine Empire History Essay The history of the Byzantine Empire begins with the tetrarchy introduced by the Roman Emperor Diocletian in 286 CE and the founding of Constantinople as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire in 330 CE by Constantine I. Diocletian had established a tetrarchy. The empire gets its name from Byzantium the former name Constantinople. Once Constantine changed its name to Constantinople, he did not hesitate to call it the new Rome making it more important than the waning power of Rome. When Constantine came to power he put an end to tetrarchy replacing it with hereditary succession. Although a part of the Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire was more Greek than Roman. The principle language was Greek and not Latin and people adopted Christianity sooner than the Romans. Dynasties of the Byzantine empire The tradition of dynastic rulers based on hereditary succession was laid down by Constantine (324-337 CE) which continued until Emperor Justinian. This dynasty was also called the Neo Flavian dynasty as every ruler bore the name Flavian. Constantine Dynasty (306 CE to 363 CE) The Constantinian Dynasty (C. 306 CE to 361 CE) ruled over an empire covering portions of Egypt, Syria and the Balkans (considered to be covering Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, and Moldova). Emperor Valens (364-378 CE) was the patron of the Valentinian Dynasty. Constantine was a farsighted ruler who had introduced many administrative reforms to upgrade the socio-political structure of the empire. He introduced the gold solidus (coins) which stabilised the economy as it was highly prized. Mosaic of Constantine in Hagia Sophia The strategic location of Constantinople on the trade route between the East and the West overlooking the Danube River helped Constantine to use to his advantage. He strengthened the army and extended the fortifications of Constantinople making them impossible to conquer. To ward off the continuous attacks of foreigners Constantine had started a system of giving subsidies (purportedly 300kg gold annually) and also favoured merchants who traded with the Huns and other foreign groups. Constantines successors worked towards dividing the civil and military authorities which persisted until the seventh century. They further strengthened the defences of Constantinople. The Eastern Empire was spared the hardships of the West thanks to effective administration and able rulers. Under Constantine Christianity received royal patronage in the form of generous privileges by the emperor. This helped the religion to reach the masses. The Constantine Dynaty was followed by non dynastic rulers from 363 CE to 364 CE followed by the Valentian dynasty from 364 CE to 379 CE. Under Arcadius, a ruler from the Theodosian dynasty (379 to 457 CE) the Roman Empire was permanently divided to form the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire in 395 CE. Leonid Dynasty (457 CE to 518 CE) This dynasty was founded by Leo I (457-474 CE) who made an unsuccessful attempt to reconquering the imperial parts of North Africa. His son-in-law Zeno (474-491 CE) succeeded him as the next emperor as his own son Leo II died after serving for only one year. When the Western Roman Empire fell, Zeno was in charge in the East. Zeno tried to get back the Western Empire by sending a Gothic warrior Theodoric I as the commander-in-chief of Italy. Although Theodoric ruled as an independent king, Zeno maintained at least a nominal supremacy over the Western Empire. Justinian Dynasty (518 CE to 602 CE) Justinian I (527-656 CE) the successor to the founder of the dynasty Justin I, was perhaps the only king who embarked upon the ambitious task of uniting the Western and the Eastern Empire. Justinian brought great prosperity to his kingdom. Although an ambitious ruler, some of his policies were unpopular with the masses. This unpopularity nearly cost him his crown during the Nika Riots (532 CE). His queenTheodora encouraged him to suppress the riots rather than beat a hasty retreat. 30,000 civilians are believed to have been killed in Justinians attempt to suppress the riots. Motivating words of Queen Thoedora that prompted Justinian I to face the Nika Riots were Those who have worn the crown should never survive its loss. Never will I see the day when I am not saluted as empress.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Royalty is a fine burial shroud, or perhaps, [the royal color] Purple makes a fine winding sheet. He reclaimed the province of North Africa in 533 CE which had been lost to the Vandals. He reached as far as Italy and defeated the weak Ostrogoths. But the Ostrogoths soon rearranged themselves and came back with double force and evicted his general Belisarius. Justinian entered into a number of treaties with the neighbouring kingdoms to ward off the continuous threat of invasion. By 555 CE, Justinian had won victories in most places except the Balkan territory which was continually invaded by the Slavs. Justinian became universally famous for revising the old Roman legal code and creating the new corpus of laws popularly known as Justinians Code. The code serves as a basis for civil law even today and provides a valuable insight to historians into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. Justinian was a devout Orthodox Christian which made him intolerable not only to other religions but even to differing ideologies within Christianity. He had become a patron of Christianity and has even been mentioned in the Bible as a saint. He regulated everything related to religion and law. The bishops of the Church recognised that nothing could be done without the will of the emperor. He brutally suppressed any heresy by opponents of the Church. He promoted monasticism, granting the monks many rights which were earlier considered a taboo, like owning property. He granted them the right to inherit property from private citizens and and revoked the ir right to receive solemnia or the monks right to receive gifts from the imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces. He aalso prohibited confiscation of monastic estates for any reason. Justinian rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia which had been destroyed during the Nika Riots. It served as the principal church of the Byzantine Empire. BYZANTINE ART AND ARCHITECTURE Byzantine art was an extension of the Roman art. As Roman art itself was inspired by the Greek art, one can see similarity among the three. However Byzantine art differed with the latter two in its approach which was more abstract than realistic. The figures and figurines in the Byzantine art appear flat and one dimensional with little use of shadow to give a life-like appearance. Faces were long and narrow devoid of any reality. The sixth century was regarded as the Golden Age of Byzantine art. One can see a considerable shift in the thinking and application of art in this period. Mathematics was regarded as the highest science and Justinian had appointed Anthemius of Tralles, a mathematician, as one of Hagia Sophias architect. Anthemius described architecture as an application of geometry to solid matter. The architecture differs from the traditional style in its execution of the domes and columns. The domes are more semi-circular than the almost circular patterns found in the West. Most of the art depicts scenes from the life of Christ. One of the most important genres of Byzantine art was the icon, an image of Christ, Virgin Mary or a saint. The kings too found a place of reverence in these religious temples. MOSAICS Mosaics were more central to the Byzantine Empire than where they originated the Western Roman Empire. Mosaics were not only found in churches but in every household in the form of small icons to commemorate the life and times of Christ. Some even depicted routine life. Mosaic art was at its peak during the fifth and sixth centuries. (From left to right) Mosaic depicting daily life; an iconic mosaic from the Patmos Monastery, Greece and a Gladiator mosaic found in Cyprus Boy and Donkey, Byzantine Mosaic HAGIA SOPHIA According to historians the foundation of Hagia Sophia was laid by Constantine I. The Church was built in three phases. The first church was by Constantius II in 360 CE and the second by Theodosius II in 415 CE. During the Nika riots in 532 CE the church was burned to the ground. Justinian built the third phase which is still intact. The Hagia Sophia Museum as it stands today-the minarets were added by the OttomansJustinian was very ambitious about the Hagia Sophia church. The church was constructed so magnificently that when it was completed, he exclaimed, Solomon, I have outdone thee! He called it the Church of Holy Wisdom. He had bought the most exotic and majestic materials from all over the Roman Empire eastern as well western. The Hellenistic columns were ordered from the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, large stones from the quarries in Egypt, green marble from Thessaly, Greece; black stone from the Bosporus region, and yellow stone from Syria. Some of the few surviving mosaics from the Hagia Sophia Christ and the Virgin Mary THE BASILICA OF SAN VITALE Ravenna served as a Byzantine centre in the Italian heartland and many structures were constructed in the city. The Church of San Vitale is one of the finest examples of Byzantine art and architecture in the Western Roman Empire. Although the architect of the structure is unknown, it was sponsored by a Greek banker Julius Argentarius around 527 CE. The Church is a fine combination of Roman and Byzantine art. It has the Roman elements of archways, domes and stepped towers and the Byzantine legacy of polygonal apse (semi circular, arched space in the wall- significant to Byzantine art), pillars, columns and narrow bricks. Justinian with his soldiers and the clergy San Vitale is famous for the mosaic panels of Emperor Justinian and his queen Theodora. The mosaic of Justinian says a lot about his power and position. He is standing in the middle with soldiers to his right and the clergy on his left including Bishop Maximianus, emphasising Justinian as the leader of both church and the State. He is clad in purple, the royal colour and has a golden halo, which gives him the same status as Christ. Theodora too is depicted as a goddess, solemn and humble, carrying the chalice that holds the holy wine. She is flanked by priests on the right who are escorting her in the church and a court of ladies on the left. Theodora being escorted to the Church ANALYSE THIS! Theodora, before marrying Justinian was a public entertainer. In those days, this profession was not considered worthy of respect. According to church laws, such women were not well received. However Justinian fell madly in love with Theodora and in order to make her his queen, abrogated the law and in fact provided better protection for women offenders and created separate cells for women offenders guarded by women guards. Consider the above incident and reflect on what this incident tells us about the power that Justinian held over the Church? How has religion become a tool in the hands of the powerful? à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦abrogated the law and in fact provided better protection for womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Is it applicable to the present times? Support your answerwith reasons. Laws have been held to have absolute power; however they have been twisted and amended to suit ones need, usually of the powerful. In the present context have you come across any such arbitrary law? Name it/ them and explain why you feel they are arbitrary. Use your grey cellsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Beauty in Wordsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Read the following article Talking Turkeyby eminent columnist Jug Suriya describing the beauty of Istanbul, Turkey. Courtesy blog Juggle- Bandhifeaturing in the Times of India website. TURKINAMA TALK TURKEY Istanbul has witnessed the seesaw of history between East and West Bunny and i take a boat from Europe to Asia. The journey lasts 20 minutes. We are in Istanbul, and the ferry takes us from Eminonu, which is on the European side of the city, to Uskudar, which is on the Asian side, on the other shore of the Bosphorus. Istanbul formerly known as Constantinople, after the Christian emperor Constantine is the fabled meeting place of Europe and Asia, East and West. The sprawling city of 22 million people is strikingly beautiful, a challenge to the artists brush, the poets phrase. Seven low hills crouch down to the sun-spangled Sea of Marmara, flanked on one side by the Bosphorus, which links it to the Black Sea, and on the other side by the inlet of the Golden Horn. The water is so blue that it has given us the word turquoise, a colour originating in Turkey. Europe and Asia, East and West, rub shoulders in comfortable familiarity. Sleek, French-built tramcars glide noiselessly down broad thoroughfares bounded by bustling pavements where designer-ripped jeans and hijabs go hand in hand. The slender minarets of a myriad mosques conjure a communion of earth and sky, and hard rock discos coexist with dervishes whirling in Sufi ecstasy. In the Grand Bazaar in Beyazit, the fixed price rigidity of the western supermarket is made flexible and fluent by the eastern art of bargaining, for anything and everything, from carpets and spices, to 22-carat gold jewellery and cellphone cards, for the sheer pleasure of it. For what better way for customer and shopkeeper to spend the day than in spirited negotiation, over endless tiny cups of thick, treacle-sweet coffee? This co-mingling of East and West is best represented by the many-domed Ayasofya, billed as one of the most wondrous buildings in the world. Originally called Hagia Sophia, it was built in the sixth century by the Byzantine emperor Justinian and for almost a thousand years it was said to be the worlds largest Christian church. In the 15th century, after Sultan Mehmed II seized Constantinople and changed its name to Istanbul, which simply means The City, Hagia Sophia was turned into a mosque and renamed Ayasofya. Five hundred years later, Kemal Ataturk, the founder of modern Turkey, made it into a museum. Ataturk often said to be Turkeys counterpart of Russias Peter the Great tried to westernise his country by making it into a secular state, introducing the Latin alphabet, and adopting the European hat as the national headgear instead of the traditional fez. Today, Ayasofya is still a museum, thronged by visitors who strain their necks to stare in wonder at the mosaic-encrusted central dome, so high that it can accommodate the Statue of Liberty. But Turkey has voted in favour of an Islamic government instead of Ataturks secular dispensation, a development which is one of the impediments to the countrys desired membership of the all-Christian European Union. East or West? The seesaw of history has yet to settle which of the two Turkey really belongs to. Or perhaps it belongs to both, and in doing so belongs to neither. For Istanbul, more than any other city, is historic proof that East and West are arbitrary geographical and cultural constructs which increasingly are becoming interchangeable with each other. Long before globalisation became a catchphrase, Istanbul that once was Constantinople was living proof of a cosmopolitan universality which underlies the cosmetic changes that history makes on the face of time. We take the ferry from Uskudar back to Eminonu, from Asia to Europe, from East to West. And were still in the same place, still in Istanbul, still in the city which could be given a name no other than The City, unique unto itself. Task If you had the choice, which city would you like to visit a city of antiquity and why? LIFE IN THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY The Eastern Roman Empire was the most prosperous civilisation from the beginning of the Middle Ages until the Arab invasions. Travellers and explorers described it as the most advanced civilisation of the time and were in awe of the people living in luxury with its superb architectural marvels. Constantinople was a trade haven, extending to Eurasia and North Africa. It was the primary western hub of the silk trade. From Constantinople, the silk was then exported to Egypt, Bulgaria and further west. The state controlled internal and international trade and held a monopoly over issuing coinage. The currency of the Byzantine Empire had a high value in the middle ages. Reforms initiated by Diocletian and Constantine laid the foundations for the Byzantium economy by replacing the gold aureus with the solidus and introducing the follies (coins) in bronze. Coins were minted both in the capital as well as provinces. Many mints were located in large eastern cities like Alexandria, Antioch, Co nstantinople, Kyzikos, Ravenna and Rome. Major guilds and corporations were supervised through taxation, controlling interest rates and regulating commodity prices. Non-monetary exchange of goods and services through barter was more typical to remote areas. The Byzantines had a strong hold on commercial activities. Professions were organised in guilds and no one was allowed to belong to two guilds simultaneously. Builders, by law, had to provide a ten-year guarantee of the structure they erected! Solidus of Justinian II from the seventh century Coin of Justinian I excavated in India suggesting existence of Indo-Roman trade People were engaged in a variety of professions, agriculture being the predominant occupation. The upper class mostly comprised of the aristocracy, state functionaries, senior military officers and large land owners. The middle class was made up of the merchants, skilled craftsmen and owners of medium size lands and properties while the lower class was made up of wage earners, labourers and destitute. Men occupied all the official posts in the imperial courts, bureaucracy and military. Women generally did not actively participate in trade and were confined to household duties however evidence of women engaging in weaving and spinning, working as fruit and vegetable vendors, herb gatherers and kourisses (women who dressed other womens hair employed either privately or in public baths). Women could also have the option of being physicians and midwives. Some served food in guest houses and taverns. Although women were excluded from priesthood, they had a special place in monasteries. Many nunneries in the Byzantine Empire were run by female abbots. FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD The Byzantine society worked on the model of paterfamilias. The male exerted absolute authority and took care of the family. The families were extended family with two to three generations living together. Nuclear families existed in urban cities where traders moved and settled with their immediate family members. The woman of the family raised and cared for the children. The more liberal paterfamilias of the Roman society was reduced to the Greek idea of paternal families where daughters were kept under strict authority of the male relatives and boys were given the freedom to act independently. A woman was invariably accompanied by someone whenever she left house. Kekaumenos, a Byzantine author in his work Strategikon has said, Keep your daughters as prisoners, confined and inconspicuous. Education was limited to reading and writing. Girls got married at the age of thirteen or fourteen and the suitor was selected by the parents. Sometimes professional matchmakers helped in bringing two compatible families together and earned by taking a percentage of the dowry. Girls usually did not have a say in choosing the partner. Marriage was a formal ceremony sanctioned by the church. A woman earned respect in society through her marriage. It was important to have at least one male child. LAW AND ORDER Christianity had pervaded every facet of human life in the Byzantine Empire, including law and order. State laws received a divine sanction as the emperor was held to be Gods earthly representative and so his laws were essential for maintaining stability. An expanding body of Canonical Laws reflect the growing authority of the church. Corpus juris civilis introduced by Justinian I served as a basis for civil jurisprudence. Many later contributions like Nomos Georgikas (Farmers Law) and Rhodian Sea Law were private collections of codes pertaining to rural life and maritime activities respectively. Criminal law mainly addressed instances of theft, robbery, damage or injury to another person or property. Courts were established to deal with these matters. Punishments ranged from financial compensation, imprisonment, exile and in cases of pre-meditated murder or fatal assault death penalty was awarded. Class barriers existed in the Byzantine Empire too. Convicted elites in cases other than treason could lose their titles, personal property or get banished to a monastery or remote province, whereas public flogging, mutilation and execution were the punishments referred for the members of the lower classes. As the influence of the church grew, such punishments were avoided and banishment in monasteries became more common. The church became an asylum for personal repentance and spiritual healing. DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE Decline of the Byzantine Empire was a process which lasted several centuries before the final collapse. Although there is no certain date for the beginning of the decline, historians unanimously agree that it all started with the invasion of the Arabs. The Arabs had conquered territories in the Levant (modern-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel and the Palestinian territories) and Egypt by the ninth century. The loss of Egypt was a substantial blow as most of the manufactured goods and naturals resources of the Byzantine Empire came from the province. Conversely Egypt now proved to be a source of finance to the Ummayad and Abbasid Caliphates, giving them the courage and resources to expand. The Byzantine-Arab Wars crippled the empire not only monetarily but the continuous state of war drained the people of their physical and emotional strength. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, the Seljuk Turks permanently settled in Anatolia. By 1025, the whole of Asia Minor, nearly 70 per cent of the Byzantine Empire was lost to the Seljuks. The Crusades were launched partly to restore the lost glory of the Byzantine Empire but majorly to get back the holy places in and near Jerusalem. However the Crusades added to the financial burden of the Empire and became a reason for its decline. Important dates 286 CE- Founding of Constantinople by the first Constatnitne Emperor Constantine I. 306- Founding of the Constantine Empire by Emperor Constantine. 330 -founding of Constantinople as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. 360- First Church of Hagia Sophia built by Constantius II. 363 to 364- non dynastic rulers. 364 to 379 -Valentian dynasty. 379 to 457 Theodosian dynasty. 395- Final division of the Western and Eastern Roman Empire. 415-Second Church of Hagia Sophia built by Theodosius II. 457 Founding of the Leonid Dynasty. 518 Founding of the Justinian Dynasty by Justin I. 523- Nika Riots put down by Justinian I. 533- Justinian reclaims the province of North Africa. Use your Grey Cellsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ RECALL Describe the geographic factors that made Constantinople a centre of cultural diffusion, military defence, and trade. How were the Roman and Byzantine empires connected? What is Justinians Code? How did the Byzantine Empire help to preserve and transmit classical Greek and Roman culture and knowledge? How did Byzantine art and architecture differ from the Romans? ANALYSE Justinians Code helped establish order in the Byzantine Empire. What role do you think rules and laws play today? Given below is a law on slaves from Book I of Justinians Code. Read it carefully and answer the questions that follow; Slaves are in the power of masters, a power derived from the law of nations; for among all nations it may be remarked that masters have the power of life and death over their slaves, and that everything acquired by the slave is acquired for the master. Was it a just law? Would this law work today? Why? Justinian uses the words law of nations? Do you think the phrase is exaggerated? Why? In Grade 6, you learnt about Hammurabis Code. How does it differ from Justinians Code? Compare and contrast. Why has codification of law been an important aspect of judicial processes? EVALUATE Byzantine Empire has contributed immensely to art and architecture. In light of the statement evaluate the contribution of Byzantine art.

trip to japan Essay -- essays research papers

There is a great deal of planning that goes into booking a vacation in a foreign country. Passports have to be taken care of, flights have to be scheduled, and accommodations have to be arranged for when the flight arrives. Also, it is important that some entertaining sites have been chosen ahead of time that would be nice to visit. By doing this, it will make the trip much easier to manage and much more enjoyable. Vacationing in a foreign country can be a great experience for family and friends, but it is important that travel arrangements, accommodations, and entertainment options are researched thoroughly before going.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Japan is where the vacation will take place, but before that can happen, some travel arrangements will have to be made. Before departing from home, every person must have a passport. A valid U.S. passport is required to enter and leave most foreign countries (â€Å"U.S. Department of State†). Acceptance facilities include courts, post offices, and some public libraries. There are also 13 regional passport agencies which require appointments. According to the U.S. Department of State:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To obtain a passport for the first time, you need to go in person to one of 6,000 passport acceptance facilities located throughout the United States with two photographs of yourself, proof of U.S. citizenship, and a valid form of photo identification such as a driver’s license. The closest pl...

A Comparison of Perfection in Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knig

Perfection in Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight The heroes of both Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight are fighters. However, the traits they have in common are far less numerous than those that set them apart. As each of the two is dubbed perfect by his contemporaries, it should be possible to draw the picture of both the model warrior and the paragon knight by comparing Beowulf and Gawain. The first question to arise is that of leadership. In Beowulf, the hero is referred to as "prince"*, the "helmet-of-Weders"**, or "master-friend"***. This is not without reason: in the times of the epic, might did literally make right. Therefore, he who was to be an accomplished warrior had to display a leader s qualities as well as combat prowess. As for the knights, they had their appointed ruler, king Arthur, and none thought of challenging him. Neither did any of the knights distinguish himself as a general; all their exploits were done single-handedly. Now, let us focus on combat. Beowulf fights a great many battles during his life, and while some of these are only briefly mentioned (the famous sea-monsters, for instance), the really titanic ones are described fully and with abundance of detail. The clash between the Geats and Grendel may serve as an example here: " Now many an earl of Beowulf brandished blade ancestral, ( ) The outlaw dire Took mortal hurt "* And so it continues for fifty-one verses. And this is but one of the heroe s armed encounters! Clearly, one has to fight much to be a great warrior The matter is quite different when it comes to knights. While Gawain's skill with sword and lance is highly praised throughout the poem, his battles are only hinted at as... ...e himself notices, "nothing is said of Beowulf's wife in the poem, but Bugge surmises that Beowulf finally accepted Hygd's offer of kingdom and hoard, and, as was usual, took her into the bargain"*** - which reflects the lack of concern a true warrior should show when dealing with women. There is, however, a trait common to the warrior and the knight: the two have a set of rules they should obey. And though the regulations that force Beowulf to come to Hrothgar's help are not nearly as neatly organised as Gawain's chivalric code embodied in the "pentangle"****, the idea of being compelled to act in a way dictated by generally accepted rules appears in both poems. We have thereby drawn the pictures of the ideal men of two different ages, and proved in the process how much the notion of perfection has changed from Beowulf to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

How and Why Does the Relationship Between John and Elizabeth Proctor Change over the Course of the Crucible?

How and why does the relationship between John and Elizabeth Proctor change over the course of The Crucible? In Arthur Miller's play The Crucible, John and Elizabeth Proctor are introduced as a young, married couple whose relationship had a tense undercurrent. Their actions and reactions towards one another prove that they are at odds with each other. John and Elizabeth seem to be trying to smooth out the bumps in their relationship, but they only seem to succeed in driving themselves further apart. Now at a time when communication is crucial, John and Elizabeth learn the mistake they made is not getting to know each other better. Act two is when Elizabeth is introduced properly in the crucible. Elizabeth and Proctor have what seems to be an awkward conversation with no sentence lasting more than a few words. The short sentences Miller uses to create the conversation between Elizabeth and Proctor such as â€Å"What keeps you so late? It’s almost dark. † And â€Å"Aye, the farm is seeded. The boys asleep? † use lots of questions adding suspicion mainly seen in Elizabeth’s speech. This shows the reader there is a lack of honesty in their relationship because if they had complete honesty in the relationship there would be no need for questions. The questions might be a way of them trying to smooth the bumps out in their relationship, attempting to bring honesty back in but neither of them seem to be opening fully, shown by the short sentences. Any attempt to open up to the other person is quickly stopped by some sort of interruption â€Å"Now look you – † â€Å"I see what I see John. † Elizabeth suspects a lack of honesty â€Å"John, you are not open with me† however Proctor continues to deny it. This all builds up tension and bottles up feelings in the relationship implying that they will burst out later on in the play. This makes the reader feel sympathy for Proctor and Elizabeth because on one hand Elizabeth simply just wants to know the truth so they can get on with their lives and on the other Proctor doesn’t want to hurt Elizabeth’s feelings by telling the truth. Elizabeth is accused of being a witch. It is believed Abigail accused her so as to get to John. Hale is introduced into Proctors house. He has come in search of evidence to back up the accusation. Hale asks a series of questions involving religious references and also asks Proctor to recite the Ten Commandments. Hale being in the Proctor’s house seems to create tension in the house. When faced with the proposition of being questioned about the Christian faith Proctor answers â€Å"Why, we – have no fear of questions sir. † This seems quite a shy answer. It lacks confidence and almost seems as though he is nervous about answering or he may even fear the questions about to come before him. This creates sympathy for Proctor by the reader because he is trying to patch up his relationship and now has to deal with accusations of being a witch on top of everything else. Elizabeth is taken to court due to her accusation and is then taken to jail. After months in jail, Elizabeth Proctor was called into the courtroom to answer a series of questions that could determine the fate of her husband, herself, and Abigail Williams. Elizabeth Proctor was asked to accuse her husband of lechery. The hesitation in Elizabeth's response to this question was not a surprise. She was fighting a battle inside of herself that only she knew the depth of. It was up to her to make a decision that she knows would change her life and the lives of others. To the question of lechery put before her, Elizabeth Proctor chose to answer â€Å"no†. Elizabeth answered â€Å"no† for a number of reasons. The biggest was the respect she had for her husband. She wanted John to reveal his sin on his own. She felt it wasn't her place to reveal the wrong in his life. Elizabeth also believed that she was part of the reason John chose to have an affair with Abigail. Before John was to sign his confession, Elizabeth asked him to forgive her for being a cold wife. Elizabeth truly believed she was the reason behind John's affair with Abigail. This proves that Elizabeth really did love John although there were times hen it wasn't evident in her words and actions. She respected and trusted him to such an extent that she allowed him to decide when he would let the community know of his sin. John Proctor also loves his wife deeply. This is shown through his actions at the end of the play. With the decision he is about to make at hand, he asks Elizabeth â€Å"what would you have me do? † It is her desires that he is concerned about because he realizes this decision will affect her too. After ripping up his confession, John grabs Elizabeth and gives her the last kiss of his life. It was not passion that drove him but pure love. Through this kiss he let Elizabeth know everything that he had been keeping in his heart during his time in jail in more. Through this kiss, Elizabeth knows that John loved her and cherished her more than before. It is evident throughout the play that displays of affection aren't very common in the Proctor household. That is common in many marriages and households today. It is also common that it isn't until something drastic happens that those who love each other find out how much they really mean to each other. This is what happened in the Proctor's situation. John and Elizabeth didn't realize what they meant to each other until they were thrown into jail and John was on the verge of losing his life. John and Elizabeth Proctor realize their love for each other at the end of the play. Although they both realize they won't be able to share it, they are overjoyed with this new discovery. Elizabeth realizes that John loves her and John realizes that Elizabeth loves him and that he does indeed have her forgiveness. This gives him the push he needs to make the right decision. In the time when John and Elizabeth's relationship must be strong, they pull through and come out the victors.